NIST SP 800-72 日本語訳

Special Publication 800-72

Sponsored by the Department of Homeland Security

Wayne Jansen

Rick Ayers

Guidelines on PDA Forensics

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Recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology

Wayne Jansen
Rick Ayers

C O M P U T E R S E C U R I T Y

NIST Special Publication 800-72

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Computer Security Division Information Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8930

November 2004

U.S. Department of Commerce Donald L. Evans, Secretary

Technology Administration

Phillip J. Bond, Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology Arden L. Bement, Jr., Director

The Information Technology Laboratory (ITL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) promotes the U.S. economy and public welfare by providing technical leadership for the Nation’s measurement and standards infrastructure. ITL develops tests, test methods, reference data, proof of concept implementations, and technical analysis to advance the development and productive use of information technology. ITL’s responsibilities include the development of technical, physical, administrative, and management standards and guidelines for the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive unclassified information in Federal computer systems. This Special Publication 800-series reports on ITL’s research, guidance, and outreach efforts in computer security and its collaborative activities with industry, government, and academic organizations.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 800-72 Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 800-72, 67 pages (2004)

Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

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Acknowledgements

The authors, Wayne Jansen and Rick Ayers from NIST wish to express their thanks to colleagues who reviewed drafts of this document. In particular, their appreciation goes to Murugiah Souppaya and Tim Grance from NIST, Karen Kent from Booz-Allen-Hamilton, Barry Grundy from NASA – Office of Inspector General, Rick Mislan from Ferris State University, Joe Grand from Grand Idea Studio, and Eoghan Casey from Knowledge Solutions LLC for their research, technical support, and written contributions to this document. The authors would also like to express thanks to all others who assisted with our review process, including Susan Ballou from NIST’s Office of Law Enforcement Standards and those individuals who contributed input during the public comment period.

This work was sponsored by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), whose support and guidance in this effort are greatly appreciated.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are a relatively recent phenomenon, not usually covered in classical computer forensics. This guide attempts to bridge that gap by providing an in-depth look into PDAs and explaining the technologies involved and their relationship to forensic procedures. It covers three families of devices – Pocket PC, Palm OS, and Linux-based PDAs – and the characteristics of their associated operating system. This guide also discusses procedures for the preservation, acquisition, examination, analysis, and reporting of digital information present on PDAs, as well as available forensic software tools that support those activities.

The objective of the guide is twofold: to help organizations evolve appropriate policies and procedures for dealing with PDAs, and to prepare forensic specialists to deal with new situations involving PDAs, when they are encountered. The guide is not all-inclusive nor is it a mandate for the law enforcement and incident response communities. However, from the principles outlined and other information provided, organizations should nevertheless find the guide helpful in setting policies and procedures.

The information in this guide is best applied in the context of current technology and practices. Every situation is unique, as are the experiences of the forensic specialists and the tools and facilities at their disposal. The judgment of the forensic specialists should be given deference in the implementation of the procedures suggested in this guide. Circumstances of individual cases and International, Federal, State, local laws/rules and organization-specific policies may also require actions other than those described in this guide. As always, close and continuing consultation with legal council is advised.

1.1 Authority

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) developed this guide in furtherance of its statutory responsibilities under the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) of 2002, Public Law 107-347.

NIST is responsible for developing standards and guidelines, including minimum requirements, for providing adequate information security for all Federal agency operations and assets; but such standards and guidelines shall not apply to national security systems. This guideline is consistent with the requirements of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-130, Section 8b(3), “Securing Agency Information Systems,” as analyzed in A-130, Appendix IV: Analysis of Key Sections. Supplemental information is provided in A-130, Appendix III.

This guide has been prepared for use by Federal agencies. It may be used by nongovernmental organizations on a voluntary basis and is not subject to copyright, though attribution is desired.

Nothing in this guide should be taken to contradict standards and guidelines made mandatory and binding on Federal agencies by the Secretary of Commerce under statutory authority, nor should these guidelines be interpreted as altering or superseding the existing authorities of the Secretary of Commerce, Director of the OMB, or any other Federal official.

1.2 Purpose and Scope

This guide provides basic information on the preservation, examination, and analysis of digital evidence on PDAs, relevant to law enforcement, incident response, and other types of investigations. The guide focuses mainly on the characteristics of the following families of PDAs: Pocket PC, Palm OS, and Linux-based PDAs. It also covers provisions to be taken into consideration during the course of an incident investigation, including evidence handling, device identification, content acquisition, documentation, and reporting.

The guide is intended to address common circumstances that may be encountered by organizational security staff and law enforcement investigators, involving digital electronic data residing on PDAs and associated electronic media. It is also intended to compliment existing guidelines and delve more deeply into issues related to PDAs and their examination and analysis.

Procedures and techniques presented in this document are a compilation of the authors’ opinions and references taken from existing forensic guidelines. The publication is not to be used as a step-by-step guide for executing a proper forensic investigation when dealing with new technologies such as PDAs or construed as legal advice. Its purpose is to inform readers of various technologies and potential ways to approach them from a forensic point of view. Readers are advised to apply the recommended practices only after consultation with management and legal officials for compliance with laws and regulations (i.e., local, state, federal, and international) that pertain to their situation.

1.3 Audience and Assumptions

The intended audience is varied and ranges from response team members handling a computer security incident to organizational security officials investigating an employee-related situation to forensic examiners involved in criminal investigations. The practices recommended in this guide are designed to highlight key principles associated with the handling and examination of electronic evidence, in general, and PDAs in particular. Readers are assumed to have a basic grounding in classical computer forensics involving individual computer systems (e.g., personal computers) and network servers. Because of the constantly changing nature of handheld devices and related forensic procedures and tools, readers are expected to take advantage of other resources, including those listed in this guide, for more current and detailed information.

1.4 Document Structure

The guide is divided into the following nine sections:

The digital forensic community faces a constant challenge to stay on top of the latest technologies that may be used to reveal relevant clues in an investigation. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are commonplace in today’s society, used by many individuals for both personal and professional purposes. PDAs vary in design and are continually undergoing change as existing technologies improve and new technologies are introduced. When a PDA is encountered during an investigation, many questions arise: What should be done about maintaining power? How should the PDA be handled? How should valuable or potentially relevant data contained on the device be examined? The key to answering these questions is an understanding of the hardware and software characteristics of PDAs.

This section gives an overview of the hardware and software capabilities of Palm OS, Pocket PC, and Linux-based PDAs. The overview provides a summary of general characteristics and, where useful, focuses on a particular model or software version that best illustrates key features of such products. Developing an understanding of the components and inner workings of these devices (e.g., memory organization and use) is a prerequisite to understanding the criticalities involved when dealing with them forensically. For example, PDA memory used to store user data is usually volatile (i.e., RAM) and requires continuous power to maintain content, unlike data residing on a personal computer’s hard disk. Handheld device technologies are changing rapidly, with new products and features being introduced regularly. Because of the fast pace with which handheld device technologies are evolving, this discussion represents a snapshot of the handheld area at the present time.

2.1 Device Characteristics

Most types of PDAs have comparable features and capabilities. They house a microprocessor, read only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), a variety of hardware keys and interfaces, and a touch sensitive, liquid crystal display. The operating system (OS) of the device is held in ROM. Several varieties of ROM are used, including Flash ROM, which can be erased and reprogrammed electronically with OS updates or an entirely different OS. RAM, which normally contains user data, is kept active by batteries whose failure or exhaustion causes all information to be lost.

The latest PDAs come equipped with system-level microprocessors that reduce the number of supporting chips required and include considerable memory capacity. Built-in Compact Flash (CF) and combination Secure Digital (SD)1/MultiMedia Card (MMC) 2 slots support memory cards and peripherals, such as a digital camera or wireless communications card. Wireless communications such as infrared (i.e., IrDA), Bluetooth, and WiFi may also be built in. Figure 1 illustrates a system-level processor chip and the generic core components of most PDAs.

Figure 1: Generic Hardware Diagram

Different devices have different technical and physical characteristics (e.g., size, weight, processor speed, memory capacity). Devices may also use different types of expansion capabilities (e.g., I/O and memory card slots, device expansion sleeves, and external hardware interfaces) to provide additional functionality. Furthermore, PDA capabilities are sometimes combined with those of other devices such as cell phones, global positioning systems, and cameras to form new types of hybrid devices. Table 1 highlights the general characteristics of selected Palm OS, Pocket PC (rebranded as Windows Mobile in 2003), and Linux PDA models, which highlight this diversity. Characteristics of a wider range of PDAs can be found on manufacturer and vendor Web sites, as well as product review sites.³,4

Table 1: An Overview of Representative PDA Models

Despite the PDA family, all devices support a set of basic Personal Information Management (PIM) applications, which provide Address Book, Appointment, Mailbox, and Memo Management capabilities. Most devices also provide the ability to communicate wirelessly, review electronic documents, and surf the Web. PIM data residing on a PDA can be synchronized with a desktop computer and automatically reconciled and replicated between the two devices, using synchronization protocols such as Microsoft’s Pocket PC ActiveSync protocol and Palm’s HotSync protocol. Synchronization protocols can also be used to exchange other kinds of data (e.g., individual text, images, and archive file formats). Information not obtainable directly from the PDA can often be retrieved from a personal computer to which the device has been synchronized [Cas04].

2.2 Palm OS

Palm established itself early in the PDA market with devices built around its operating system, Palm OS. Early Palm OS devices use 16- and 32-bit processors based on the Motorola DragonBall MC68328-family of microprocessors. More recent devices use StrongArm and XScale microprocessors.⁵ Older Palm OS devices tend to be driven by alkaline batteries instead of lithium-ion batteries, used in new models.

The Palm OS and built-in applications are stored in ROM, while application and user data are stored in RAM. Add-on utilities also exist to back up PIM data (e.g., Address Book, Date Book, To Do List, Memo Pad) onto available ROM [Bob04, Pie99]. Palm OS system software logically organizes ROM and RAM for a handheld device into one or more memory modules known as a card. Each memory card can contain ROM, RAM, or both. A handheld device can have one card, multiple cards, or no cards. The main suite of applications provided with each Palm OS powered handheld is built into ROM. This design permits the user to replace the operating system and the entire application suite by installing a single replacement module. Additional or replacement applications and system extensions can be loaded into RAM.

The Palm OS divides the total available RAM store into two logical areas: dynamic RAM and storage RAM. Dynamic RAM is used as working space for temporary allocations, and is analogous to the RAM installed in a typical desktop system. The remainder of the available RAM on the card is designated as storage RAM and is analogous to disk storage on a typical desktop system. Because power is always applied to the memory system, both areas of RAM preserve their contents when the device is turned "off" (i.e., is in low-power sleep mode). All of the storage memory is preserved even when the device is reset explicitly (i.e., manually pressing the reset button to perform a warm boot). As part of the warm boot sequence (i.e., a soft reset), the system software reinitializes the dynamic area, and leaves the storage area intact. The entire area of dynamic RAM is used to implement a single collection of free storage or heap that provides memory for dynamic allocations such as global variables, system buffers (e.g., TCP/IP, IrDA communications), and application stacks. Storage RAM is configured as one or more storage heaps used to hold non-volatile user data. Storage heaps may also be ROM-based. As part of the cold boot sequence (i.e., a hard reset), in addition to reinitializing the dynamic area of RAM, the storage area is erased [PPC04].

Palm OS storage memory is arranged in chunks called “records,” which are grouped into “databases.” The Palm OS “databases” can be thought of as files. The Palm file format (PFF) conforms to one of the three types defined below [Hil03]:

With Palm OS, because all applications share the same dynamic RAM, they can interfere with each other’s data. Buffer overflow attacks are also easily implemented [Ket00].

The latest Palm OS PDAs offer two expansion modes for providing an increase in functionality: the Palm Universal Connector System and Palm Expansion Card Slot. The Universal Connector System allows GPS receivers, wireless modems, keyboards, and other peripherals to interact with the device via a USB enabled connection. The Palm Expansion Card Slot accommodates MultiMediaCard (MMC) and Secure Digital (SD) cards. MMC card modules are removable solid-state memory of similar size and design to SD memory Cards.

Besides memory, SD cards may also incorporate other types of peripherals such as wireless communications or camera cards.

The architecture for Palm OS devices is organized into the following layers: Application, Operating System, Software API and Hardware Drivers, and Hardware. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between layers. The software Application Programming Interface (API) gives software developers a degree of hardware independence, allowing applications to execute under different hardware environments by recompiling the application. Developers have the freedom to bypass the API and directly access the processor, providing more control of the processor and its functionality. However, this comes at the expense of increased security risks due to malicious applications. The Palm OS does not implement permissions on code and data. Therefore, any application can access and modify data [Kin01].

Figure 2: Palm OS Architecture

Other handheld device manufacturers have licensed the Palm OS for use in their own line of equipment. Versions of the Palm OS can be divided into three ranges: those before version 4.0, those from version 4.0 to 5.0, and those from 5.0 onward to version 6. Initially Palm OS supported simple multitasking whereby applications could run only one at a time, and were single-threaded. More recent versions support full multitasking and multi-threaded applications. A number of vulnerabilities were identified in versions before 4.0 and subsequently fixed. In particular, the user login password was shown to be vulnerable and easily reversed [Kin01]. Version 4.0 also introduced initial support for filesystems on removable memory cards. Versions before 5.0 execute only a single program at a time, while 5.0 and after support multiprocessing. Versions 5.0 and above switched emphasis away from the DragonBall family of microprocessors to the StrongArm family⁷, with emulation support of legacy applications previously developed for DragonBall.

Palm OS devices offer built-in security features to provide protection for individual entries/records and the ability to lock the device when the user turns the device off. Locking individual records allow users to mark records as private and not be displayed unless the proper password is provided. However, records marked private can be accessed, read, and copied through other means [Ket00]. The ability to lock a device requires users to enter the correct password before access is granted to the application screen. In early versions of Palm OS, weak password encoding is easily reversed and the encoded block of data that contains the password during a HotSync can be intercepted [Kin01]. Third party products exist that give users the ability to encrypt sensitive data and enhance overall security [Pmd02].

Palm OS devices include an RS232-based “Palm Debugger” providing source and assembly level debugging, entered by issuing a keystroke combination. Two interfaces exist that monitor the serial port for communication. “Console Mode” interacts with a high-level debugger and is used mostly for manipulation of databases. “Debug Mode” is typically used for assembly and register-level debugging [Kin01].

2.3 Pocket PC

Pocket PC grew out of the success of the Palm PDA and the growing demand for similar devices that had more processing power and networking capabilities. Microsoft entered the handheld device market with the Windows CE (WinCE) operating system, which was later augmented with additional functionality to produce Pocket PC (PPC).⁸ Windows CE supports a multitasking, multithreaded environment, which is inherited by Pocket PC. Applications running under Windows CE are protected from interfering with each other through memory management [Ket00]. Windows CE and PPC have evolved in tandem from versions WinCE 2.0/PPC 2000 to WinCE 3.0/PPC 2002 to WinCE 4.2/PPC 2003 (PPC 2003 was rebranded as Windows Mobile 2003), through a number of feature upgrades. For example, early versions of ActiveSync were susceptible to brute force password attacks and denial of service attacks when synchronizing over a network [Meu02] and subsequently corrected. Vulnerabilities present on earlier devices may provide a means of bypassing security mechanisms, allowing forensic investigators access to data.

Pocket PC runs on a number of processors, but primarily appears on devices having Xscale, ARM, or SHx processors. Various Pocket PC devices have ROM ranging from 32 to 64MB and RAM ranging from 32 to 128MB. PIM and other user data normally reside in RAM, while the operating system and support applications reside in ROM. An additional filestore can be allocated in unused ROM and made available for backing up files from RAM. One or more card slots, such as a Compact Flash (CF) or Secure Digital (SD) card slot, are typically supported. Additionally, some manufactures provide expansion capabilities, such as extension sleeves or modules that allow other technologies to be incorporated. Most Pocket PC devices use a lithium-ion battery. To prevent data loss when battery power is low, the lithium-ion battery must be recharged via the cradle, a power cable, or removed and replaced with a charged battery.

The architecture for Windows CE devices consists of four layers: Application, Operating System, Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM), and Hardware. A simplified diagram of the architecture of Windows CE is shown in Figure 3 below. Services are organized into modules, which can be included or excluded when building an image for a specific target system [Ges03]. Because most of the Windows CE operating system is written in the C language, the kernel and other modules can be ported to different processors by recompiling the code for a specific hardware architecture (e.g., StrongArm, XScale, etc.).

The Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Layer is the layer between the Operating System Layer and the Hardware Layer. It contains the OEM Adaptation Layer (OAL), which consists of a set of functions related to system startup, interrupt handling, power management, profiling, timer and clock. The OAL allows an OEM to adapt Windows CE to a specific platform. An OEM must write the OAL for any custom hardware present.

Figure 3: Windows CE Architecture

Within the Operating System Layer are the Windows CE kernel and device drivers, whose purpose is to manage and interface with hardware devices. Device drivers provide the linkage for the kernel to recognize the device and to allow communications to be established between hardware and applications. A device driver can be either monolithic or layered. Monolithic drivers implement their interface directly in terms of actions on the device they control. Layered drivers separate the implementation into two layers – an upper layer, which exposes the driver’s native or stream interface, and a lower layer that performs the hardware interactions.

The Graphics, Windowing, and Events Subsystem (GWES) is also part of the Operating System Layer and provides the interface between the user, the application, and the operating system. GWES is an integrated graphics device interface (GDI), window manager, and event manager. The GWES module has two subcomponents: User and GDI. User refers to the part of GWES that handles messages, events, and user input from keyboard and mouse or stylus. GDI refers to the part of GWES that controls how text and graphics are displayed. GDI is used to draw lines, curves, closed figures, text, and bitmap images.

The object store refers to three types of persistent storage supported by Windows CE within the Operating System Layer: file system, registry, and property databases. Standard Win32 functions provide access to files and the registry, while new Windows CE-specific API functions provide access to property databases and certain registry features. The subset of Win32 and other Microsoft APIs implemented in Pocket PC allows a system to fulfill the requirements of an embedded application, yet keep the programmability similar to that of Windows PCs. The maximum size of the object store is 256MB in Windows CE. The object store is built on an internal heap that resides in RAM, ROM, or both. The internal heap provides a transaction model that uses logging to ensure the integrity of the object store data.

The Windows CE file system allows a file to be stored both in RAM and ROM. When a file stored in RAM has the same name as a file stored in ROM, the actual RAM file shadows the ROM file. A user who tries to access a shadowed file gains access to only the RAM version. However, when the RAM version is deleted, the ROM version of the file is accessible. This feature is useful for upgrading files that come with a device as ROM files.

Property databases are repositories of information that can be stored, searched, and retrieved by associated applications. To reduce space, compression techniques are also applied automatically. These databases provide a common way to manage persistent information on the device.

The Windows CE registry is a database that stores information about applications, drivers, system configuration, user preferences, and other data. The purpose of the registry is to provide a single place for storing all the settings for the system, applications, and user. The registry is always stored in RAM and consequently is volatile. If no registry is available in RAM, Windows CE can regenerate a default one from a file stored in ROM.

The Windows CE operating system supports four types of memory:

Pocket PC devices offer users the ability to set a power-on password that can be made up of a 4-digit numeric or a stronger alphanumeric password up to 29 characters long. Additionally, users can set a timeout that locks the device when not in use for the predefined specified amount of time. If a password entry attempt is incorrect, the subsequent attempt is penalized and takes longer to process, to discourage brute force attacks. If a password is forgotten, the only way to unlock the device is by performing a hard-reset and resynching data. Some recent models of Pocket PC devices have integrated a fingerprint biometric for additional security that can be used in tandem with 4-digit or alphanumeric passwords.

Pocket PC permits the hardware developer, system integrator, or developer to decide which services are incorporated in their Pocket PC version. Pocket PC devices can incorporate trusted environments where the OS kernel verifies applications and libraries before loading them. Three possibilities exist: the software module may be trusted without restrictions, trusted with the restriction that no privileged function calls or registry access can be done, or not trusted at all [Aho01].

Pocket PC devices can have significantly different bootloader⁹ functionality. The device manufacturer determines the range of functionality with two exceptions – the bootloader must be able to load the OS and to upgrade it to a more recent version. Some early versions of Pocket PC devices provided documentation on specific key chord sequences (e.g., simultaneously pressing buttons 2 and 4, the power button, and the reset button on iPaq 38xx models) that would boot into a specific mode known as “Parrot mode.” The device must be connected via the serial connector and a terminal emulator is used to establish communications with the bootloader and issue commands. Parrot mode has a rich command set that includes the ability to set register values, display memory contents, set memory contents, display the virtual address mapping table, backup memory to storage cards (CF/SD), and restore memory from storage.

2.4 Linux

Linux, a popular open source operating system for servers and desktop computers, has also appeared on several PDA devices [Fae03]. Linux is a true multitasking, 32-bit operating system that supports multithreading. Besides commercial distributions that come preinstalled by PDA manufacturers, Linux distributions are also available for a range of Pocket PC and Palm OS devices. The success of Linux-based PDAs rests on the open source model and its ability to engage the software development community to produce useful applications.

The most common Linux PDA in the U.S. is the Sharp Zaurus. The first Zaurus model, the SL-5500, was introduced in 2002. It uses Embedix¹⁰, an embedded Linux kernel from Lineo, and Qtopia desktop environment from Trolltech for the windowing and presentation technology. Embedix is based on a networked kernel with built-in support for WiFi, Bluetooth, and wireless modem technologies, as well as associated security and encryption modules. The device has a StrongARM processor, 16 MB of ROM, 64MB of RAM, and a 3.5-inch 240x320-pixel color LCD. As with Palm OS and Pocket PC devices, the Zaurus’ power source is a lithium-ion battery. Both Compact Flash (CF) and SD slots are present (the SD slot also accepts MMC). A small QWERTY-style keyboard is integrated into the device and becomes visible by sliding down the thumb pad and application button panel.

Embedix Linux refers to a commercial distribution. While most Linux distributions include the same utilities, libraries, drivers, and windowing frameworks, differences occur in what patches, modules, and utilities are included, and how the installation, configuration, and upgrade are performed. A minimal embedded Linux system¹¹ requires three crucial elements: a boot utility, the Linux micro-kernel, and an initialization process. User applications based upon personal use can be added for self-customization of the device.

Linux distributions are also available for HP’s iPAQ, Dell’s Axim, and other PDAs but require the user to install over the existing OS. For example, iPAQ devices come preinstalled with Microsoft's Windows for Pocket PC. Linux can replace the Microsoft OS in the unit's flash ROM [Fae01, Hal01, Zwi02]. A popular Linux distribution for the iPAQ is the Familiar

Distribution [Hon04].¹² Familiar includes a packaging system called ipkg (Itsy package), which installs, updates, removes, and manages packages similarly to the Redhat or Debian package facility for desktop Linux.¹³ For current information about Linux-based handheld devices, related Web sites should be monitored regularly.¹⁴

Figure 4 gives a conceptual architecture for the Linux operating system. The Linux operating system is responsible for memory management, process and thread creation, interprocess communication mechanisms, interrupt handling, execute-in-place (XIP) ROM filesystems, RAM filesystems, flash management, and TCP/IP networking.

Figure 4: Linux Architecture

The Linux kernel is composed of modular components and subsystems that include device drivers, protocols, and other component types. The kernel also includes the scheduler, the memory manager, the virtual filesystem, and the resource allocator. Programming interfaces provide a standard method by which the Linux kernel can be expanded. Processing proceeds from the system call interface to request service, for example, from the file or process control subsystem, which in turn requests service(s) from the hardware. The hardware then provides the service to the kernel, returning results through the kernel to the system call interface.

Linux offers comprehensive support for security that has been part of the operating system from its onset. Features include user identification and authentication, access control on files and directories based on owner (user/group/all), logging of security-relevant activities, and various levels of network encryption (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), Secure Shell (SSH), etc.). Processes running under Linux on the same machine are also protected from interfering with one another [Ket00]. Linux operating systems tailored for PDAs have on occasion been found to contain security vulnerabilities in design and implementation that affect system security. For example, the screen-locking passcode on the Zaurus that provides user authentication, created the same random value (i.e., salt value¹⁵) every time the passcode was set. This oversight weakened security by allowing an attacker to generate a passcode table and find consistent values to uncover the device password, and required correction [Cha02]. Besides its built-in security features, third-party security solutions also exist for Linux, to provide additional security measures for device and file access.

The bootloader is firmware that is responsible for initializing hardware and physical memory, and loading and transferring control to the kernel. Linux-based bootloaders on embedded devices usually can accept kernel images transferred over one or more different interfaces, including serial connections, Ethernet connections, and memory cards. They also may provide a rich command set. For instance, the flash bootloader for Linux on iPAQ devices is a full-featured program that includes commands to read and write arbitrary RAM locations and write arbitrary flash ROM locations.¹⁶

2.5 Generic States

The simplest view of a computing device, such as a desktop computer, is that it is in either an “on” or “off” state. However, further amplification is needed, particularly for PDAs, whose behavior is more complex. Figure 5 gives a high-level diagram that illustrates the various states in which a PDA can be at any time, along with the transitions that can occur to cause a change of state. While a more detailed state diagram is possible, the following four states provide a simple but comprehensive generic model that applies to most PDAs:

Figure 5: Generic State Diagram

Simply stated – a PDA device with sufficient battery power is never really turned off, since processes are active even when no visible cues are present.

For simplicity, a device is said to be “off” or “powered off” if it is in the quiescent state, and “on” or “powered on” if it is in any of the remaining states. Similarly, a device is said to be “cleared” and devoid of data when in the nascent state. Note, however, deviations can occur should devices utilize flash memory for purposes other than exclusively housing the operating system. For example, applications exist for the Palm OS that allow data to be stored on flash memory in space unused by the operating system. Similarly, some recent Pocket PC PDAs are beginning to include a feature to backup important PIM data on flash memory, where it can be retained and restored if a hard reset is performed on the device. Finally, Linux handheld distributions, such as the Familiar Distribution from handhelds.org, often use flash memory in lieu of RAM for user data to avoid loss when a hard reset occurs. In these situations, the nascent state must be interpreted accordingly.

Unlike the situation with personal computers, the number and variety of toolkits for PDAs and other handheld devices are considerably limited. Not only are there fewer specialized tools and toolkits, but also the range of devices over which they operate is typically narrowed to only the most popular families of PDA devices – those based on the Pocket PC and Palm OS. Linux-based devices can be imaged with the dd utility, somewhat analogously to a Linux desktop, and analyzed with the use of a compatible tool (e.g., EnCase). Since Palm OS devices have been around the longest, more forensic tools are available for them than for other device families. Table 2 lists open-source and commercially available tools known to the authors and the facilities they provide: acquisition, examination, or reporting. The abbreviation NA means that the tool at the left of the row is not applicable to the device at top of the column. With one exception (i.e., versions of Palm OS prior to 4.0), these tools require that the examiner have unobstructed access to acquire contents (i.e., no authentication technique need be satisfied to gain access).

Table 2: PDA Forensic Tools

Forensic tools acquire data from a device in one of two ways: physical acquisition or logical acquisition. Physical acquisition implies a bit-by-bit copy of an entire physical store (e.g., a disk drive or RAM chip), while logical acquisition implies a bit-by-bit copy of logical storage objects (e.g., directories and files) that reside on a logical store (e.g., a filesystem partition). The difference lies in the distinction between memory as seen by a process through the operating system facilities (i.e., a logical view), versus memory as seen in raw form by the processor and other related hardware components (i.e., a physical view).

Physical acquisition has advantages over logical acquisition, since it allows deleted files and any data remnants present (e.g., unallocated RAM or unused filesystem space) to be examined, which otherwise would go unaccounted. Physical device images are generally more easily imported into another tool for examination and reporting. However, a logical structure has the advantage that it is a more natural organization to understand and use during examination. Thus, if possible, doing both types of acquisition on PDAs is preferable.

Tools not designed specifically for forensic purposes are questionable and should be thoroughly evaluated before use. In some situations, they might be the only means to retrieve information that could be relevant as evidence.

3.1 Palm dd (pdd)

Palm dd (pdd)¹⁷ is a Windows-based command line tool that performs a physical acquisition of information from Palm OS devices [Gra02]. pdd is designed to work with most PDAs running the Palm OS in console mode. During the acquisition stage, a bit-for-bit image of the device’s memory can be obtained. The data retrieved by pdd includes all user applications and databases. pdd is strictly a command line driven application without features such as graphics libraries, report generation, search facilities, and bookmarking capabilities. Once the information has been acquired, two files are generated: one that contains device-specific information (e.g., OS version, processor type, sizes of RAM and ROM), and another that contains a bit-by-bit image of the device. Examiners face the challenge of carefully examining the output, which is in binary form, some of which happens to be ASCII characters. Files created from pdd can be imported into a forensic tool, such as EnCase, to aid analysis; otherwise, the default tool is a hex editor. pdd does not provide hash values for the information acquired. However, a separate procedure can be used to obtain needed hash values. As of January 2003, pdd is no longer supported, however, version 1.11 source code is available and should remain available for use, as defined in the included license. Paraben has integrated elements of the pdd engine into PDA Seizure [Cas04].

3.2 Pilot-Link

Pilot-link is an open source software suite originally developed for the Linux community to allow information to be transferred between Linux hosts and Palm OS devices.¹⁸ It runs on other desktop operating systems besides Linux, including Windows and Mac OS. About thirty command line programs comprise the software suite. Unlike pdd, which uses the Palm debugger protocol for acquisition, pilot-link uses the Hotsync protocol. The two programs of interest to forensic specialists are pi-getram and pi-getrom, which respectively retrieve the contents of RAM and ROM from a device, similar to the physical acquisition done by pdd. Another useful program is pilot-xfer, which allows the installation of programs and the backup and restoration of databases. pilot-xfer provides a means to acquire the contents of a device logically. The contents retrieved with these utilities can be manually examined with either POSE, a compatible forensic tool such as EnCase, or a hex editor. Pilot-link does not provide hash values of the information acquired. A separate step must be carried out to obtain needed hash values.

3.3 POSE

POSE (Palm OS Emulator)¹⁹ is a software program that runs on a desktop computer under a variety of operating systems, and behaves exactly as a Palm OS hardware device, once an appropriate ROM is loaded into it. The free emulator program imitates the hardware of a

DragonBall processor. Built-in PIM applications (e.g., Datebook, Address Book, To Do, etc.) run properly and the hardware buttons and display react accurately. ROM images can be obtained from the PalmSource Web site or by copying the contents of ROM from an actual device, using pdd, Pilot-Link, or a companion tool provided with the emulator. POSE is limited to Palm OS versions 4.x and below.

Loading actual RAM-based databases into the emulator, extracted using pilot-link or another tool, allows an examiner to view and operate the emulated device in a similar fashion as having the original. Though originally developed to run, test, and debug Palm OS applications without having to download them to an actual device, POSE also serves as a useful tool for doing presentations or capturing screen shots of evidence found on the emulated device from within the databases loaded from a seized device. POSE can be configured to map the Palm OS serial port to one of the available serial ports on the desktop computer or to redirect any TCP/IP calls to the TCP/IP stack on the desktop. With some experimentation, the HotSync protocol can even be run between the desktop computer and device it is emulating, over a looped back serial connection or a redirected TCP/IP connection.

3.4 PDA Seizure

Paraben’s PDA Seizure is a commercially available forensic software toolkit that allows forensic examiners to acquire and examine information on PDAs for both the Pocket PC (PPC) and Palm OS platforms.²⁰ Paraben’s product currently supports Palm OS up to version 5, Pocket PC 2000-2003 (up to Windows CE 4.2), ActiveSync 3.7, and HotSync. PDA Seizure’s features include the ability to acquire a forensic image of Palm OS and Pocket PC devices, to perform examiner-defined searches on data contained within acquired files, generate hash values of individual files and to generate a report of the findings. PDA Seizure also provides book-marking capabilities to organize information, along with a graphics library that automatically assembles found images under a single facility, based on the graphics file extension of the acquired files.

During the acquisition stage of a PPC device, the connectivity of the device via ActiveSync is required. A guest account must be used to create a connection. Before acquisition begins, PDA Seizure places a small program on the device in the first available block of memory to access unallocated regions of memory. To access the remaining information, PDA Seizure utilizes the Remote API (RAPI) protocol, which provides a set of functions for desktop applications to communicate with a device and logically access information. For Palm OS devices, the PDA must first be put into a debug mode, commonly referred to as console mode, and all active HotSync applications must be closed. Once the memory image of a Palm OS device is acquired, the user is prompted to select the HotSync button on the device to acquire the logical data separately. The logical data is also represented in the RAM image file that was acquired through the physical acquisition.

3.5 EnCase

EnCase is a commercially available forensic software toolkit that provides acquisition of suspect media, search and analytical tools, hash generation of individual files, data capture and documentation features.²¹ Although more widely used for examining PCs, EnCase also supports Palm OS devices. Currently, support for Pocket PC is not available, but the ability to import a data dump of Linux-based PDAs exists. EnCase allows for the creation of a complete physical bit-stream image of a Palm OS device. Throughout the process, the integrity of the bit-stream image is continually verified by CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) values, which are calculated concurrent to acquisition. The resulting bit-stream image, called an EnCase evidence file, is mounted as a read-only file or “virtual drive” from which EnCase proceeds to reconstruct the file structure using the logical data in the bit-stream image. This allows the examiner to search and examine the contents of the device using either a logical or physical perspective.

EnCase allows for files, folders, or sections of a file to be highlighted and saved for later reference. These marks are called bookmarks. All bookmarks are saved in case files, with each case having its own bookmark file. Bookmarks can be viewed anytime and can be made from anywhere data or folders exist. Reporting features allows examiners to view information from a number of perspectives: all acquired files, single files, results of a string search, a report, or the entire case file created.

3.6 Duplicate Disk (dd)

The duplicate disk (dd) utility is similar to pdd insofar as it allows examiners to create a bit-by-bit image of the device. As one of the original Unix utilities, dd has been around in one form or another for decades. Unlike the other tools described above, dd executes directly on the PDA. An image of the device can be obtained by connecting to the PDA, issuing the dd command, and dumping the contents elsewhere, for example, to auxiliary media such as a memory card or across a network session to a forensic workstation. Caution should be exercised, since dd may destroy parts of the filesystem (e.g., overwriting data) if used incorrectly. As with pdd, dd produces binary data output, some of which contains ASCII character information. Images created from dd may be imported for examination into a forensic tool, such as EnCase, if the filesystem is supported. A dd created image may also be mounted in loopback mode on a filesystem-compatible Linux machine for analysis. The standard version of dd does not provide hash values for the information acquired. However, a separate procedure can be used to obtain needed hash values. Modified versions of dd exist that incorporate hash value computation, but would require cross compilation and installation to use.

3.7 Miscellaneous Tools

Other tools available from a hardware or software manufacturer to backup data or develop software for a device or device family may aid an investigation. For example, Microsoft has developed a tool called ActiveSync Remote Display (ASRDisp) that allows ActiveSync to connect to a Pocket PC device and display its full functionality in a virtual device window on the desktop, as if one were performing actions on the physical device itself. After data has been acquired from the target device, a full backup via ActiveSync could be done to restore the backed up data on an identical device, which is used with ASRDisp for presentation purposes. The ASRDisp utility is part of the Windows Mobile Developer Power Toys suite.²²

Another means of presenting data is to use a Pocket PC emulator and the shared folder functionality available. Again, after device acquisition has taken place, examiners can export out individual files gleaned from the device to a specific folder present on the forensic workstation. The shared folder allows information to be imported and displayed via the emulator, giving examiners the ability to present relevant information virtually. Emulators for all versions of the Pocket PC operating system are available for downloading at the Microsoft site.²³

3.8 Custom Tools

Where possible, established procedures should guide the technical process of acquisition, as well as the examination of evidence. However, some situations demand that specialized procedures and methods be applied. Procedures must be tested to ensure that the results obtained are valid and independently reproducible. The development and validation of the procedures should be documented and include the following steps [DOJ04]:

Investigations and incidents are handled in various ways depending upon the circumstances of the incident, the gravity of the incident, and the preparation and experience of the investigation team. Digital investigations are comparable to crime scenes where investigative techniques used by law enforcement have been applied as a foundation for the creation of procedures used when dealing with digital evidence. This section provides an overview of various procedural models and principles that have been proposed.

4.1 Roles and Responsibilities

Whatever the type of incident, the various types of roles involved are similar. Planning for incidents should address how existing personnel fulfill these roles when responding and conducting an investigation. A generic set of roles and associated responsibilities can be identified. They include First Responders, Investigators, Technicians, Forensic Examiners, and Forensic Analysts. In a given situation, a single individual may perform more than one role. Nevertheless, distinguishing distinct roles and their associated responsibilities is useful.

First Responders are trained personnel who arrive first on the scene of an incident, provide an initial assessment, and begin the appropriate level of response. The responsibilities of First Responders are to secure the incident scene, call for the appropriate support needed, and assist with evidence collection.

Investigators plan and manage preservation, acquisition, examination, analysis, and reporting of electronic evidence. The Lead Investigator is in charge of making sure that activities at the scene of an incident are executed in the right order and at the right time. The Lead Investigator may be responsible for developing the evidence, preparing a case report, and briefing any findings and determinations to senior officials.

Technicians carry out actions at the direction of the Lead Investigator. Technicians are responsible for identifying and collecting evidence and documenting the incident scene. They are specially trained personnel who seize electronic equipment and acquire digital images resident within memory. More than one technician is typically involved in an incident, because different skills and knowledge are needed. Sufficient expertise should be available at the scene to address all distinct digital apparatus involved in the incident.

Evidence Custodians protect all evidence gathered that is stored in a central location. They accept evidence collected by Technicians, ensure it is properly tagged, check it into and out of protective custody, and maintain a strict chain of custody.

Forensic Examiners are specially trained personnel who reproduce images acquired from seized equipment and recover digital data. Examiners make the information on the device visible. Examiners may also acquire more elusive data using highly specialized equipment, intensive reverse engineering, or other appropriate means unavailable to Forensic Technicians.

Forensic Analysts evaluate the product of the Forensic Examiner for its significance and probative value to the case.

4.2 Evidential Principles

As a backdrop to any investigation basic principals have been proposed for dealing with digital evidence. Digital evidence has both physical and logical aspects. The physical side of it involves hardware components, peripherals, and media, which may contain data or the means to access it, while the logical side deals with the raw data extracted from a relevant information source. The Good Practice Guide for Computer based Electronic Evidence [ACPO2] suggests four principles when dealing with digital evidence.

The Proposed Standards for the Exchange of Digital Evidence [IOCE], suggest a similar set of principals for the standardized recovery of computer-based evidence:

The above sets of principles aim to ensure the integrity and accountability of digital evidence through its entire life cycle. Proper handling of evidence is always vital for it to be admissible in judicial proceedings. However, different standards may apply to different types of investigations. The degree of training and expertise required to execute a forensic task largely depends on the level of evidence required in the case [Pur].

The Daubert method, a set of standards that serve as a guide when dealing with evidence in a court of law, proposes several reliability factors, which should be kept in mind when applying and reporting on a scientific technique being used in a forensic examination [Oco04]:

In general, even outside of law enforcement investigations, evidence should be collected in a manner that makes it likely the evidence could be admissible in court. It may not be obvious when an investigation is initiated, for example, when a computer security incident is first detected, that a court action will ensue. Important evidence might be overlooked, improperly handled, or accidentally destroyed before the seriousness of the incident is realized.

4.3 Procedural Models

The Electronic Crime Scene Investigation – A Guide for First Responders, produced by the U.S. Department of Justice [DOJ01], offers the following suggestions when approaching a digital crime scene.

Incident Response [Man01], an “Incident Response Methodology” proposes the following phases when encountering an incident or performing a digital investigation.

Research conducted at the U.S. Air Force proposes the following steps when dealing with a forensic investigation [Rei02].

Each of the above procedural models and evidential principals contains key points that should be considered when dealing with digital evidence. Because every incident investigation is distinct with its own unique set of circumstances, a single definitive procedural approach is difficult to prescribe. Nevertheless, most models touch on the same key areas, though stressing different aspects. The remaining sections follow a simple framework of four topical areas: obtaining an exhibit, making a forensic copy of its contents, obtaining evidence from the forensic copy, and reporting on the evidence obtained and process used. They are respectively referred to within this document as preservation, acquisition, examination and analysis, and reporting.

Evidence preservation is the process of seizing suspect property without altering or changing the contents of data that reside on devices and removable media. It is the first step in digital evidence recovery. The section begins with a generic introduction to preservation then provides a more in-depth look at PDA-specific guidance.

Preservation involves the search, recognition, documentation, and collection of electronic-based evidence. In order to use evidence successfully, whether in a court of law or a less formal proceeding, it must be preserved. Failure to preserve evidence in its original state could jeopardize an entire investigation, potentially losing valuable information about an incident permanently.

The DOJ’s Electronic Crime Scene Investigation report covers this subject in detail [DOJ01]. The guide offers principles, policies, and procedures to follow when encountering a digital evidence scene. The reader is directed to that report for additional information. The following is a summary of the key points to observe.

The remaining subsections provide supplemental information related to PDAs, following the paradigm of search, recognition, documentation, and collection.

5.1 Search

When an investigative team arrives at the scene with the appropriate authorization to examine a suspect’s surroundings (e.g., a search warrant, consent from the owner), they should proceed cautiously and follow the necessary steps to ensure that the device arrives at the forensics laboratory without data depletion. Incorrect procedures during the seizure can cause critical information to be lost. Awareness of device specific issues and an understanding of various families of devices and their characteristics and accessories (e.g., power consumption, battery type, cradles, and power supplies) are essential.

For PDAs, evidence sources include the device, device cradle, power supply, and associated peripherals, media, and accessories. Removable media varies from the size of a stamp to a stick of gum, which can be hidden and extremely difficult to find. Most often removable media can be identified through the number and placement of pins or pin receptacles located on the media that establish an interface with the device. The surrounding area and rooms other than where the device was found should be searched to ensure related evidence is not overlooked. Equipment associated with the PDA, such as memory cards or personal computers synched with the PDA, may be more valuable than the PDA itself.

By accident or deliberate action, electronic equipment may be found in a damaged state. Devices or media with visible external damage do not necessarily prevent data from being extracted from them. Damaged equipment should be taken back to the lab for further investigation. Repairing damaged components on a device and restoring it to working order for examination and analysis may be possible. The memory components may also be repaired/examined locally, or removed and examined by a specially trained examiner.

Legal advisors should be contacted for assistance, if needed, with the following two critical legal considerations [DOJ04]:

5.2 Recognition

To proceed effectively, the exact type of device must be identified. Individuals may attempt to thwart specialists by altering the device to conceal its true identity. Device alteration could range from removing manufacturer labels to filing off logos. In addition, the operating system may be modified or completely replaced and appear differently, as well as behave differently than before.

If digital devices such as PDAs are in the “on” state the type of device can be identified by the operating system, which is more consistent in device identity rather than a logo. Though the two dominant operating systems are Pocket PC and Palm OS, PDAs manufactured to run one operating system can frequently run an alternative operating system. For example, distributions of Linux available from handhelds.org can be loaded and run on a variety of Pocket PC devices.²⁴ Similarly, versions of Linux, such as Linux DA, exist for Palm OS devices.²⁵

Each operating system has particular applications intertwined within the main graphical user interface (i.e., icons such as Word, Explorer, Memo Pad, Terminal, etc.). Other clues that allow identification of a device are the following: the cradle interface, manufacturer serial number, the cradle type, power supply, etc. Any synchronization software discovered on an associated PC also helps to differentiate among operating system families.

5.3 Documentation

Evidence must be accurately accounted for and identified. The labeling process should document the case number, a brief description, signature, and the date and time the evidence was collected. Additionally, the crime scene should be photographed alongside a report documenting the state of each digital device/personal computer (personal computers may contain useful data that has not been synchronized with the owner’s PDA). This is helpful if questioned about the environment later [Kru01].

A record of all visible data should be created. All digital devices (PDAs) that may possibly store data should be photographed with all peripherals cables, cradles, power connectors, removable media, and connections. If the device is in an active or semi-active state, the screen’s contents should be photographed and, if necessary, recorded manually. Other characteristics such as any LED activity (e.g., blinking) or physical connectivity should also be noted. Having an individual in charge to perform evidence custodian duties at the scene, alongside a partner responsible for documentation of evidence, is desirable during the collection phase [Kru01].

Actions taken on the system to view and record other volatile data not displayed at the time affect the remaining evidence. For example, running an application to view memory allocation or running processes will overwrite parts of memory. Moreover, it risks activating Trojan horse code hidden within the application.

The chain of custody procedure is a simple yet effective process of documenting the complete journey of evidence through the lifecycle of the case. Carefully maintaining the chain of custody not only protects the integrity of evidence, but also makes if difficult for someone to argue that the evidence was tampered with [Kru01]. The documentation should answer the following questions:

Documentation to all of the above questions must be maintained and filed in a secure location for current and future reference.

5.4 Collection

Where PDAs are concerned, the collection process normally involves dynamic and volatile information that may be lost unless precautions are taken at the scene of the incident or crime. The “Good Practice Guide for Computer Based Electronic Evidence” [ACPO] suggests the following procedures when dealing with PDAs:

PDAs maintain user data in a volatile state powered by either an alkaline or lithium ion battery source. The device design determines the type of battery source provided; batteries may be rechargeable or replaceable. If devices lose power for too long a time, the chance of recovering all data from the seized device is unlikely. Before a technician can bag and tag a PDA, the present power state must be considered. For example, the device may be receiving power from a cradle plugged into an outlet and fully charged, the batteries may have recently removed from the device to clear memory, or the device may be extremely low on battery power.

In cases where devices are powered by alkaline batteries, fresh batteries should be inserted as soon as possible to lessen the chance of data loss before evidence can be acquired. Installing fresh batteries is a normal activity for PDAs, especially those that run alkaline-based devices. However, pulling the batteries out and installing replacement batteries changes the state of the device; therefore, the technician should take note of the current state of the device beforehand, along with any needed photographs.

Devices powered by a lithium-ion battery source should either be plugged into a compatible cradle with a power source, or have a fully charged replacement battery inserted. If a cradle found at the scene is occupied with the device, the cradle should first be disconnected from any computer to which it is attached. During battery replacement, PDAs keep a small capacitance charge to the device to maintain volatile data for a short amount of time. Thus, batteries must be replaced quickly to prevent loss of data.

To conserve power, PDAs are normally configured to shut themselves off after a short period of inactivity. Therefore, they are mostly likely to be powered off when found. If a PDA is powered on when found, maintaining a device in an active running mode causes it to consume more power than if it were powered off and inactive, making battery replacement and charging considerations even more important. Anecdotal evidence suggests that built-in user authentication and content encryption capabilities are not employed for the vast majority of PDAs seized. Therefore, if additional power cannot be supplied to a device, and it is turned off to conserve power and preserve memory contents, the risk of activating such security mechanisms when the device is turned on again should be low. Keeping a device in the active state is also troublesome. Moreover, authentication mechanisms, such as passwords, typically cannot be turned off without first satisfying the mechanism (e.g., supplying the correct password). For these reasons, procedures for some organizations may recommend turning off certain classes of PDAs or letting them turn off automatically, if found powered on.

5.4.1 Exacerbating Conditions

Besides the battery level, other factors can influence the actions a technician takes in a given situation to preserve evidence when the device is found in the on state. For example, some devices can receive data through wireless networks that might provide new evidence, but might overwrite existing data. Therefore, a calculated decision must be made whether to prevent or allow further wireless communications [Cas04]. Other factors include whether the device is cradled, is synchronizing with or communicating through a host computer, or has a memory card inserted. Table 3 provides a list of common conditions and associated actions for the forensic technician to consider in meeting the identified goal.

Table 3: Action Matrix

5.4.2 Modified Devices

A number of considerations need to be made when handling a device. For example, pressing the power button, synchronization button, or the PIM-related contacts, calendar, to-do list, and tasks buttons on the device could potentially trigger an alteration of state. More interesting, however, are modifications to the software applications and operating system that may have been made to the device, which could be triggered from these actions. The following is a list of common classes of modifications that can occur:

5.4.3 Transport and Storage

Once the device is ready to be seized, the forensic specialists should seal the device in a static proof bag and tag it. The individual who seizes the device must sign and date the tag to initiate a chain of custody. A hard case, in which the internal padding can conform to various device shapes, would be preferable to using an envelop within the evidence bag to prevent keys from being pressed accidentally. Radio frequency isolation bags exist for cutting off a device’s radio transmission and reception and should be used where appropriate with PDAs having wireless capabilities. An independent external power charger may be connected and placed in the bag with the device to keep the power level full during transit. The device may also be packaged to allow a power adaptor to be connected to the device through a hole in the bag, as a means for keeping the power level high. Lithium-ion devices can usually be powered through a compatible cigarette-lighter cable to keep charge to the device while in transit. If a cable is used with a radio frequency isolation bag, the cable must be properly shielded to prevent it from serving as an antenna and nullifying the effect of the isolation bag.

Digital devices are fragile and easily damaged. When a device is transported, it should be handled carefully and adequately protected from shock, breakage, and extreme temperature. Due to the volatile state of PDAs, they should immediately be checked into a forensic laboratory to be processed and the evidence custodian be made aware of the situation regarding power requirements. Battery powered devices held in storage for more than a few days risk power depletion and data loss, unless a process is in place to avoid this outcome.

Storage facilities that hold evidence should provide a cool, dry environment appropriate for valuable electronic equipment. All evidence should be in sealed containers, in a secure area with controlled access.

Acquisition is the process of imaging or otherwise obtaining information from a digital device and its peripheral equipment and media. Acquisition should occur at a forensics laboratory once the seized information has been safely checked in. The advantage of performing acquisition at the scene is that loss of information due to battery depletion, damage, etc. is avoided. However, finding a controlled setting in which to work, having the appropriate equipment, and satisfying other prerequisites may not occur at the scene, but instead be available within a laboratory setting. For the purpose of discussion, in this section a laboratory environment is assumed.

Once the device has arrived at the forensic laboratory, the forensic examiner begins the acquisition with identification of the device. The type of device and operating system present on the device determines the route to take for the creation of a sound bit-for-bit image or otherwise acquiring the contents of the device. Only a few different forensic software tools that image PDAs currently exist and no one application presently handles the full range of devices on the market [Aye04]. The type of PDA and operating system, therefore, generally dictates which application to use in an investigation.

Normally, the forensic toolkit used for acquisition is also the one used for examination and analysis. Where there is a choice among several tools, such as with Palm OS devices, interoperability among acquisition and examination facilities may exist, as shown in Table 4. The entries therein show the results of data acquired with one tool, indicated by the row header, analyzed by another, indicated by the column header. Interoperability is an important aspect for consideration, since some tools may be limited to specific operating system versions or may not support certain device models. Moreover, occasionally one forensic tool may fail to acquire information from a specific device, while another tool works without problems.

Table 4: Interoperability Among Palm OS Tools

Forensic examiners are advised to experiment with various toolkits on test devices to find out which acquisition tools work efficiently with particular device types, and to determine the degree of interoperability among different acquisition and examination tools for a device family. Besides gaining familiarity with the capabilities of the tool, experimentation allows special purpose search filters and custom configurations to be set up before use in an actual case. In addition, software updates from the manufacturer can be installed.

No matter whether the device is Pocket PC, Palm OS, or Linux-based, to acquire data from it, a connection must be established from the specialist’s forensic workstation to the device. Before performing an acquisition, the version of the tool being used should be documented, along with any applicable patches or errata from the manufacturer applied to the tool. Once the connection has been established, the forensic software suite can proceed to acquire data from the device properly.

Unlike desktop machines or network servers, present day PDAs have no hard disk and rely instead completely on semiconductor memory. Specialized software exists for producing an image of the device, as well as performing a logical acquisition of PIM data. However, the contents of a PDA are dynamic and continually changing, even when switched off (i.e., in the quiescent state). Two back-to-back acquisitions of a device using the same tool produce different results overall, though the majority of information, such as PIM data, remains unchanged. To image a PDA device’s memory, the device has to be switched on, which is a major difference from personal computers. This effectively means that the first evidentiary principle mentioned in section 4 – actions taken should not modify data contained on the device – cannot be complied with, strictly speaking. Therefore, the goal with PDA acquisition is to affect memory contents as little as possible and then only in the knowledge of what is happening internally, placing more importance on ensuring adherence to the second and third evidentiary principles, which stress the competence of the specialist and the generation of a detailed audit trail [ACPO].

After an acquisition is finished, the forensic specialist should always confirm that the entire contents of a device were captured correctly (i.e., verify RAM/ROM size ensuring consistency with the device). On occasion, a tool may fail its task without any error notification and require the specialist to reattempt it with either the same tool or another tool. Similarly, some tools do not work well with certain devices as others do, and may fail with an error notification. Thus, when possible, it is advisable to have multiple tools available.

6.1 Unobstructed Devices

An unobstructed device is a device that does not require a password or other authentication technique to be satisfied to be granted access to the device. From anecdotal information, most devices seized in investigations appear to fall into this category. As mentioned earlier, when seizing an “Unobstructed Device” caution should be utilized to avoid, for example, altering the state of the device by pressing key chord sequences that have the potential to corrupt or erase valuable evidence.

In general, a PDA has four main categories of storage to consider: the operating system code, including the kernel, device drivers, and system libraries; dynamically allocated memory for executing operating system applications and storing and executing additional user applications loaded onto the device, user storage for various types of data files, including text, images, and sounds; and critical data backup of important PIM application information and data files. The characteristics of these four categories range from highly stable to extremely volatile. These differences combined with the characteristics of a specific operating system, determine how ROM and RAM are used to support each storage category.

Figure 6 illustrates the most typical arrangement. Flash ROM is used mainly to hold the operating system code and optionally, any PIM data or files backed up by the user into the remaining space. Flash memory has a limited life of approximately 100,000 erase cycles. RAM is used for dynamic storage and user file storage. A soft reset (i.e., warm boot) typically reinitializes the dynamic storage in RAM, but leaves user file storage untouched, while a hard reset (i.e., cold boot) reinitializes both. Completely draining power from the PDA has the same effect as a hard reset. ROM is unaffected by either a soft or hard reset.

Figure 6: ROM/RAM Storage Assignments

A common alternative memory arrangement is shown in Figure 7. Here user file storage resides in Flash ROM with the operating system code, which avoids the need for backup utilities, since the storage is persistent and unaffected by resets and power drainage. The relative sizes of ROM and RAM are normally sized differently (i.e., more ROM and less RAM) when compared with the earlier arrangement to provide commensurate capacity. To keep user file storage in ROM versus RAM, a specialized filesystem is required to avoid quickly reaching the lifetime of that media. File systems such as JFFS2 (The Journaling Flash File System, version 2) are designed specifically to manage flash memory usage carefully [Woo01]. For example, JFFS2 prevents the rewrite of an entire sector to erase a single byte and ensures that different areas of memory are used in rotation to manage wear.

Because a limited number of forensic tools exist for acquisition of ROM and RAM contents from a PDA, the choice is often simple. One main consideration is to maintain compatibility with the toolkit eventually used in examination and analysis, since interoperability among different PDA tools, especially commercial case file formats, is not guaranteed.

Figure 7: Alternative ROM/RAM Assignments

In order to preserve the integrity of the data, examiners should handle the original evidence as little as possible. Generally, it is recommended to create a “master” forensic copy of the device first, which is kept completely pristine. The master copy is then used to create additional mirror images needed for analysis and examination of evidence [Gas03]. A strong one-way cryptographic hash (e.g., SHA1) should be performed to ensure that the additional images created from the master copy are identical.

6.2 Obstructed Devices

Obstructed devices typically refer to devices that are shut off (i.e., in the quiescent state) and require successful authentication using a password or some other means to gain access. Password protected devices normally require the expertise of a specially trained forensic specialist to gain access to the device contents, while maintaining integrity of the information and avoiding damage to the device. A number of ways exist to extract data from obstructed devices. They fall into three classes: investigative, software-based and hardware-based methods.

Software and hardware-based methods are often developed specifically for a particular device or narrow class of device. In developing a method, the following actions should be considered for determining possible approaches:

6.2.1 Investigative Methods

Investigative methods are procedures the investigative team can apply, which require no forensic software or hardware tools. The most obvious methods are the following:

6.2.2 Software-based Methods

Software-based methods involve software techniques used to break or bypass authentication mechanisms. While some general-purpose software techniques and tools may apply to a class of PDA devices, most of the techniques are specialized for a specific model within a class. When a specialized technique is developed, it is normally programmed and tested on an identical test device. Software-based methods include the following:

6.2.3 Hardware-based Methods

Hardware-based methods involve a combination of software and hardware to break or bypass authentication mechanisms. Few general-purpose hardware-based methods apply to a general class of PDA devices. Most of the techniques are specialized for a specific model within a class. As with software-based methods, when a specialized technique is developed, it is normally developed using a test device identical to the one under examination. The device manufacturer may also provide useful information and tools for extracting data. Hardware-based methods include the following:

6.3 Tangential Equipment

Tangential equipment includes devices that contain memory and are associated with a PDA. The two main categories are memory cards and host computers to which a PDA has synchronized its contents. Surprisingly, USB memory drives, which are a common peripheral for host computers, are generally not a factor for PDAs because of interface issues.

PDAs, especially higher end models, typically support Compact Flash (CF), Secure Digital (SD), Multi-Media Cards (MMC), and other types of removable media designed specifically for handheld devices, which can contain a significant amount of data. Like RAM and ROM, memory cards are typically semiconductor memory. They are normally used as auxiliary user file storage, backup of important PDA content, or a means to convey files to and from the device. The physical sizes of memory cards supported by handheld devices are noteworthy insofar as they are quite small, about the size of a coin, and easy to overlook. Therefore, investigators should take their time and thoroughly search the premises, when seizing material. Data can be acquired from removable media with the use of a media reader and a forensic application used to image hard drives.

The data contained on a PDA is often present on a personal computer, due to the capability of a PDA to synchronize or otherwise share information among one or more host computers. Such personal computers or workstations are referred to as synched devices. Because of synchronization, a significant amount of valuable evidence on a PDA, if not all, may also be present on the suspect’s laptop or personal computer, and recovered using a conventional computer forensic tool for hard drive acquisition and examination.

USB drives, sometimes referred to as thumb drives, are chewing-gum-pack size hardware components with a USB connector at one end, and built as a printed circuit board within a plastic housing that encases a processor and memory. USB memory drives can be treated similarly to a removable disk drive, and imaged and analyzed using conventional forensic tools.

6.3.1 Synched Devices

Synchronization refers to the process of resolving differences in certain classes of information, such as e-mail, residing on two devices (i.e., a PDA and PC), such that both retain most current versions, which reflect any actions taken by the user (e.g., deletions) on one device or the other. Depending on how the suspect’s device is configured, a significant amount of informative data may reside locally on the personal computer. When a connection is established between the device and the PC, the user may communicate through the following types of account:

Synchronization of information may occur at either the record level or the file level. When done at the file level, any discrepancies from the last synchronization date and time result in the latest version automatically replacing the older version. Occasionally manual intervention may be needed if both versions were modified independently since the last synchronization occurred. Record level synchronization is done similarly, but with more granularity whereby only out-of-date parts of a file are resolved and replaced.

With Palm OS devices, record level synchronization is the norm. The core PIM databases that can be synchronized include the following: Address Book, Date Book, Memo Pad, Note Pad, and To Do List. With Pocket PC devices, file level synchronization is the norm. The core PIM application files that can be synchronized include the following: Calendar, Contacts, Inbox, Pocket Access, Tasks, and Favorites. Synchronization software other than that built into the operating system also exists and may provide a more extensive or different set of capabilities. Because the synchronized contents of a PDA and personal computer tend to diverge quickly over time, additional information may be found in one device or the other.

Digital devices are typically populated with data from the PC during the synchronization process. Data from the PDA can also be synchronized to the PC, through user-defined preferences in the synchronization software. The synchronization software and the device type determine where PDA files may be stored on the PC. Each synchronization protocol has a default installation directory, but the locale can be user specified. Palm’s HotSync manager keeps a log of data transfers containing: dates, location of the data, and what information was synched.

6.3.2 Memory Cards

A wide array of memory cards exists on the market today, ranging from the size of a stamp to that of a matchbook. Removable media storage capacity ranges from 8MB to beyond 2GB. As technological advances are made, such media becomes smaller and offers larger storage densities. Removable media extends the storage capacity of PDAs, allowing individuals to store additional files beyond the device’s built-in capacity. Memory cards provide another avenue for sharing data between multiple users that have compatible hardware.

Unlike RAM within a device, removable media is non-volatile storage and requires no battery to retain data. Fortunately, such media can be treated similarly to a removable disk drive, and imaged and analyzed using conventional forensic tools with the use of an external media reader. Memory card adapters exist that support an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) interface. Such adapters allow removable media to be treated as a hard disk and used with write blocker software, which ensures that the removable media remains unaltered [Wie02]. Data contained on the media can be imaged and searched, and deleted files recovered. Below is a brief overview of several common storage media in use today that may contain significant information related to an investigation.

• Multi-Media Cards (MMC) - A Multi-Media Card (MMC) is a solid-state disk card with a 7-pin connector. MMC cards have a 1-bit data bus. As with CF cards, they are designed with flash technology, a non-volatile storage solution that retains information once power is removed from the card. The cards contain no moving parts and provide greater protection of data than conventional magnetic disk drives. Multi-Media Cards are about the size of a postage stamp (length-32 mm, width-24 mm, and thickness-1.4 mm). Reduced Size Multi-Media cards (RS-MMC) also exist. They are approximately one-half the size of the standard MMC card (length-18mm, width-24mm, and thickness-1.4mm). Though they were designed specifically for mobile phones, they can potentially be used with PDAs. An RS-MMC can be used in a full size MMC slot with a mechanical adapter. A regular MMC card can be also used in RS-MMC card slot, though part of it will stick out from the slot. MMCplus and MMCmobile are higher performance variants of MMC and RS-MMC cards respectively that have a 13-pin connector and an 8-bit data bus.

6.3.3 USB Memory Drives

Many manufacturers produce USB memory drives of various capacities. Currently, however, very few PDA devices support host USB ports, which are needed to interface with these peripherals. Moreover, few if any USB drive manufacturers provide the necessary drivers for PDA operating systems. This situation is understandable given that host USB specifications intend for an interface to be capable of supporting multiple devices sharing the port, which if permitted would place a significant power drain on the battery of the device. Other factors include the restrictions in mobility imposed by a USB drive sticking out of the side of a PDA compared to the benefits of providing one or more memory card slots that completely contain a card when inserted.

As with memory card extensions, USB drives may offer additional capabilities such as a wireless interface. Access to memory contents may also be protected through a built-in fingerprint reader or some other mechanism such as a smart card, which complicates the acquisition process. However, for the reasons mentioned above these peripherals are not normally associated with PDA devices.

The examination process gives light to probative data. The results, gained through applying established scientifically based methods, should describe the content and state of the data completely. Such documentation allows all parties to discover what is contained, including information that may have been hidden or obscured. Once all the information is exposed, data reduction can begin, thereby separating relevant from irrelevant information. The analysis process differs from examination in that it looks at the product of the examination for its significance and probative value to the case [ACPO]. Examination is a technical process that is the province of the forensic specialist. However, analysis may be done by roles other than the forensic analyst, such as the investigator or the forensic examiner. One individual may perform all the roles involved.

The examination process begins after a forensic workstation has been set up with the appropriate tools and a copy of the evidence acquired from the device. If available, the examiner should have studied the case and become familiar with the parameters of the offence, the parties involved, and potential evidence that might be found. Conducting the examination in a partnership with the forensic analyst or the investigator guiding the case construction is advisable for the examiner. The investigator or analyst provides insight into the types of things sought, while the forensic examiner provides the means to find relevant information that might be on the system [Wol03].

If the forensic examiner performs the analysis independently, without conferring with the forensic analyst or investigator, the knowledge gained by studying the case should provide ideas about the specific keywords or phrases to use when searching the image acquired from the device. Fortunately, compared with classical examination of individual workstations or network servers, the amount of acquired data, in terms of raw image size, is many times smaller (i.e., Mbytes vs. Gbytes).

Depending on the type of case, the strategy varies. A case about child pornography may begin with browsing all of the graphic images on the system, while a case about an Internet-related offence might begin with browsing the Internet history files [Wol03]. Examination often reveals not only potentially incriminating data but also useful information such as passwords, network logon names, and Internet activity. In addition to evidence directly related to an incident, information can be uncovered about the lifestyle of a suspect, their associates, and the types of activities in which they are involved.

7.1 Locating Evidence

Standard PDAs typically offer similar information handling features and capabilities, including Personal Information Management (PIM) applications, support for e-mail, and Web browsing. Hybrid devices that incorporate both PDA and cell phone functionality also exist. Potential evidence on these devices includes [DOJ01]:

Generally, two types of computer forensic investigations take place. The first is where some incident has occurred, but the identity of the offender is unknown (e.g., malicious code attack, hacking incident, etc.). The second is where the offender and the incident are both known (e.g., a child-porn investigation). Armed with the knowledge of the circumstances of the incident, the forensic examiner and analyst can proceed toward accomplishing the following objectives:

Table 5 below provides a cross reference of generic evidence sources found on PDAs and their likely contribution toward satisfying the above objectives. Most of the source information comes from PIM data, and Internet related information. Other support applications that run on the device potentially provide other evidence sources. User files placed on the device for rendition, viewing, or editing are also another important evidence source. Besides graphic files, other relevant file content includes spreadsheets, presentation slides, and similar items. For hybrid devices, such as PDA phones or GPS PDAs, additional evidence sources exist, for example, the last dialed number or coordinates to some destination.

Table 5: Cross Reference of Sources and Objectives

Knowledge and experience with multiple tools for acquiring and examining the contents of PDAs is extremely valuable. For instance, one tool may perform better than another in specific areas such as file identification or search facilities; tools may report, acquire, and examine the contents of acquired data differently; and some tools may be platform specific. Therefore, using a toolkit that offers the best set of features for recovering and analyzing evidence from a specific device is advantageous.

7.2 Applying Tools

Once the acquired image has been copied, the next step is to begin searching the data, creating bookmarks, and developing the contents of a final report. Forensic examination tools are a crucial component in this process as they translate data from raw bit images to a format and structure that is understandable by the examiner and can be effectively used to identify and recover evidence. It is important to note that tools have the possibility to contain some degree of error. For example, the implementation of the tool may have a programming error; the specification of a file structure used by the tool to translate bits into data comprehensible by the examiner may be inaccurate or out of date; or the file structure generated by another program as input may be incorrect, causing the tool to function improperly [Car02]. Therefore, having a high degree of trust and understanding of the tool’s ability to perform its function properly is essential. In addition, a knowledgeable suspect may tamper with device information, such as purposefully misnaming a file extension to foil the workings of a tool or apply a wiping tool to remove or eliminate data. Over time, experience with a tool provides an understanding of its limitations, allowing an examiner to compensate for them and avoid error.

Forensic Examination of Digital Evidence – A Guide for Law Enforcement, produced by the U.S. Department of Justice [DOJ04], offers the following suggestions for the analysis of extracted data:

The capabilities of the tools, the richness of features, and the operating system (e.g., Windows CE, Palm OS, Linux) and type of device under examination determines what information can be found, recovered, and reported, and the amount of effort needed. Areas of variability include the search and recovery of deleted information, information on reset devices, or information within compressed file archives or files with misnamed extensions [Aye04]. For example, some tools used to search for evidence may identify files by file extension where others use a file signature database. The latter feature is preferable since it eliminates the possibility of masking data based upon an inconsistent file extension. This is especially true for graphics files of various types, since by their very nature they generally are shrouded from textual searches.

The search engine plays a significant role in the discovery of information used for the creation of bookmarks and final reporting. Searching data for positive results on incriminating evidence takes patience and can be time consuming. Some tools have a simple search engine that matches an input text string exactly, allowing only for elementary searches to be performed. Other tools house more intelligent and feature rich search engines, allowing for grep (generalized regular expression patterns) type searches, including wildcard matches; filtering of files by extension, directory, etc.; and batch scripts that search for specific types of content (i.e., e-mail addresses, URLs, etc.). Similarly, the ability to find and gather images automatically into a common graphics library facility can differ among tools. The greater the tool’s capabilities, the more the experience with and knowledge of the tool become valuable for the forensic examiner.

To uncover evidence, specialists must first gain a background of the suspect and offense and determine a set of terms for the examination. Search expressions should be developed in a systematic fashion, such as using contact names that may be relevant. By doing this, the specialist creates a profile for potential leads that may unveil valuable findings. To eliminate all possibility of omitting valuable evidence, the data should be thoroughly looked through from beginning to end in a memory window provided by either the tool or a hex editor. Additionally, specialists should have a database of file signatures to locate the headers and footers of specific files that may lead to further evidence such as: graphics files, avi files, etc.

Once the data has been thoroughly searched and relevant items bookmarked, it is time to create a report. Many forensic applications come with a built-in reporting facility that imports bookmarked data, allowing the specialist to organize the report, choose its style, and customize other aspects of the report. Reports may include the following: Specialists Name, Case Number, Date, Title, Suspect Name, Categories for evidence, and relevant evidence found. The software-generated report is only a small part of the overall final report. The final report contains the software-generated report alongside the documentation accumulated throughout the entire cycle, which summarizes the actions of the forensic examination and presents the results of the analysis, including any evidence uncovered.

The following criteria have been suggested as a fundamental set of requirements for forensic tools [Car02], and should be considered when a choice of tools is available:

Other factors in choosing among software tools include the Daubert considerations mentioned earlier in section 4.2 (particularly Acceptance) and the following items:

Reporting is the process of preparing a detailed summary of all the steps taken and conclusions reached in the investigation of a case. Reporting depends on all participants carefully maintaining a record of their actions and observations, reporting the results of tests, and explaining the inferences drawn from the evidence. The basis of a good report is solid documentation, notes, sketches, photographs, and tool-generated reports.

Reporting of the results of a forensic examination tend to follow predefined templates, customized as required by the specific circumstances of each investigation. Reports of forensic examination results should include all the information necessary to identify the case and its source, outline the test results and findings, and bear the signature of the individual responsible for its contents. In general, the report may include the following information [DOJ04]:

Many forensic software applications have reporting facilities built-in. Examiners should include only relevant findings in the report to minimize size and confusion among those reviewing it. Automated reports typically contain the following key components: Case Number, Date, Examiner Name, Suspect Name, and Files Acquired (showing hash, ASCII data, graphical representation of data, etc.).

Digital evidence, as well as the tools, techniques and methodologies used in an examination, is subject to being challenged in a court of law or other formal proceedings. Proper documentation is essential in providing individuals the ability to re-create the process from beginning to end. As part of the reporting process, making a copy of the software used and including it with the output produced is advisable. This is especially pertinent for custom tools, since confusion about the version of the software used to create the output is eliminated, should it become necessary to reproduce forensic processing results at a later time. The same practice applies to commercial software tools, which could be upgraded after an examination is completed [NTI].

[ACPO] Good Practice Guide for Computer-based Electronic Evidence, Association of Chief Police Officers, <URL: http://www.nhtcu.org/ACPO%20Guide%20v3.0.pdf>.

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[Car02] Brian Carrier, Defining Digital Forensic Examination and Analysis Tools, Digital Forensics Research Workshop II, August 2002, <URL: http://www.dfrws.org/dfrws2002/papers/Papers/Brian_carrier.pdf>.

[Cas04] Eoghan Casey, Chapter 13: Forensic Examination of Handheld Devices, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime, 2nd edition, Academic Press, March 2000.

[DOJ01] Electronic Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for First Responders, U.S. Department of Justice, NCJ 187736, July 2001, <URL: http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/187736.pdf>.

[DOJ04] Forensic Examination of Digital Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement, U.S. Department of Justice, NCJ 199408, April 2004, <URL: http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/199408.pdf>.

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[Ges03] Windows CE Embedded PC: Developer’s Documentation, Version 3.0, Gesytec GmbH, August 2003, <URL: http://www.gesytec.de/common/pdf-downloads/epc/embedded-pc.pdf>.

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API – Application Programming Interface

ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange

CF – Compact Flash

Codec – Coder-Decoder

CIR – Consumer Infrared

CRC – Cyclical Redundancy Check

dd – duplicate disk/data dump

DLL – Dynamically Linked Library

GDI – Graphics Device Interface

GPS – Global Positioning System

GPRS – General Packet Radio Service

GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications

GWES – Graphics, Windowing, and Events Subsystem

IDE – Integrated Drive Electronics

IPsec – Internet Protocol Security

IrDA - Infra Red Data Association

JFFS2 – Journaling Flash File System, Version 2

JTAG – Joint Test Action Group

LCD – Liquid Crystal Display

LED – Light Emitting Diode

MMC – Multi-Media Card

OAL – Original Equipment Manufacture Adaptation Layer

OEM – Original Equipment Manufacture

OS – Operating System

PC – Personal Computer

PDA – Personal Digital Assistant

pdd – Palm data dump/duplicate disk

PFF – Palm File Format

PIM – Personal Information Management

PIN – Personal Identification Number

POSE – Palm Operating System Emulator

PPC – Pocket PC

PPTP – Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol

RAM – Random Access Memory

RAPI – Remote Application Programming Interface

ROM – Read Only Memory

SD – Secure Digital

SHA1 – Secure Hash Algorithm, version 1

SSH – Secure Shell

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TFT – Thin Film Transistor

UART – Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

URL – Uniform Resource Locator

USB – Universal Serial Bus

WiFi – Wireless Fidelity

WinCE – Windows CE

XIP – eXecute In Place

Acquisition – A process by which digital evidence is duplicated, copied, or imaged.

Analysis – The examination of acquired data for its significance and probative value to the case.

Authentication Mechanism – Hardware or software-based mechanisms that force users to prove their identity before accessing data on a device.

Bluetooth – A wireless protocol that allows two Bluetooth enabled devices to communicate with each other within a short distance (e.g., 30 ft.).

Brute Force Password Attack – A method of accessing an obstructed device through attempting multiple combinations of numeric/alphanumeric passwords.

Buffer Overflow Attack – A method of overloading a predefined amount of space in a buffer, which can potentially overwrite and corrupt memory in data.

Chain of Custody – A process that tracks the movement of evidence through its collection, safeguarding, and analysis lifecycle by documenting each person who handled the evidence, the date/time it was collected or transferred, and the purpose for the transfer.

Compressed File – A file reduced in size through the application of a compression algorithm, commonly performed to save disk space. The act of compressing a file will make it unreadable to most programs until the file is uncompressed. Most common compression utilities are PKZIP and WinZip with an extension of .zip.

Cradle – A docking station, which creates an interface between a user’s PC and PDA, and enables communication and battery recharging.

Cyclical Redundancy Check – A method to ensure data has not been altered after being sent through a communication channel.

Deleted File – A file that has been logically, but not necessarily physically, erased from the operating system, perhaps to eliminate potentially incriminating evidence. Deleting files does not always necessarily eliminate the possibility of recovering all or part of the original data.

Digital Evidence – Electronic information stored or transmitted in binary form.

Duplicate Digital Evidence – A duplicate is an accurate digital reproduction of all data objects contained on the original physical item and associated media (e.g., flash memory, RAM, ROM).

Electromagnetic Interference – An electromagnetic disturbance that interrupts, obstructs, or otherwise degrades or limits the effective performance of electronics/electrical equipment.

Electronic Evidence – Information and data of investigative value that is stored on or transmitted by an electronic device.

Encryption – Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plain text into cipher text to prevent anyone but the intended recipient from reading that data.

Examination – A technical review that makes the evidence visible and suitable for analysis; tests performed on the evidence to determine the presence or absence of specific data.

Exculpatory Evidence – Evidence that tends to decrease the likelihood of fault or guilt.

eXecute in Place – A facility that allows code to be executed directly from flash memory without loading the code into RAM.

File Name Anomaly – A mismatch between the internal file header and it external extension; a file name inconsistent with the content of the file (e.g., renaming a graphics file with a non-graphics extension).

File Slack – Space between the logical end of the file and the end of the last allocation unit for that file.

Filesystem – A software mechanism that defines the way that files are named, stored, organized, and accessed on logical volumes of partitioned memory.

Flash ROM – non-volatile memory that is writable.

Forensic Copy – An accurate bit-for-bit reproduction of the information contained on an electronic device or associated media, whose validity and integrity has been verified using an accepted algorithm.

Forensic Specialist – Locates, identifies, collects, analyzes and examines data while preserving the integrity and maintaining a strict chain of custody of information discovered.

Global Positioning System – A system for determining position by comparing radio signals from several satellites.

Hardware Driver – Applications responsible for establishing communication between hardware and software programs.

Hashing – The process of using a mathematical algorithm against data to produce a numeric value that is representative of that data.

Heap – A software data structure used for dynamic allocation of memory.

Image – An exact bit-stream copy of all electronic data on a device, performed in a manner that ensures the information is not altered.

Inculpatory Evidence – Evidence that tends to increase the likelihood of fault or guilt.

Loop-Back Mode – An operating system facility that allows a device to be mounted via a loopback address and viewed logically on the PC.

Misnamed Files – A technique used to disguise a file’s content by changing the file’s name to something innocuous or altering its extension to a different type of file, forcing the examiner to identify the files by file signature versus file extension.

Password Protected – The ability to protect a file using a password access control, protecting the data contents from being viewed with the appropriate viewer unless the proper password is entered.

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) – A handheld computer that serves as a tool for reading and conveying documents, electronic mail, and other electronic media over a communications link, and for organizing personal information, such as a name-and-address database, a to-do list, and an appointment calendar.

Personal Information Management (PIM) Applications – A core set of applications that provide the electronic equivalents of an agenda, address book, notepad, and business card holder.

Probative Data – Information that reveals the truth of an allegation.

Steganography – The art and science of communicating in a way that hides the existence of the communication. For example, a child pornography image can be hidden inside another graphic image file, audio file, or other file format.

Synchronization Protocols – Protocols that allow users to view, modify, and transfer/update PDA data from the PC or vice-versa. The two most common synchronization protocols are: Microsoft’s ActiveSync and Palm’s HotSync.

Thread– A defined group of instructions executing apart from other similarly defined groups, but sharing memory and resources of the process to which they belong.

Universal Serial Bus (USB) – A hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and telephony devices.

Volatile Memory – Memory that loses its content when power is turned off or lost.

Write-Blocker – A device that allows investigators to examine media while preventing data writes from occurring on the subject media.

Write Protection – Hardware or software methods of preventing data from being written to a disk or other medium.